In many cases there is a tendency to understand, use and believe that access to much information is the same as access to knowledge. Perhaps one reason for this confusion has to do that for many authors the ability to create knowledge is related to a large extent, access to information and confused the boundary between both concepts.
For its part, Dretske (1981) argues that the information can be considered in two ways: syntactically (by volume it has) and semantically (by meaning you own). The semantic aspect of information is more important for the construction of knowledge, because it focuses on the meaning expressed. In this way, information is considered, a flow of messages and knowledge is created precisely for this flow of information, anchored in the beliefs and commitment of its holder. This explanation emphasizes that knowledge is essentially related to human action.
Knowledge has been defined theoretically as true and justified beliefs acquired empirically. This is operationalized, to understand knowledge as a sequence, a continuum from data to information and knowledge thereof, which becomes with time and experience that grows up to become knowledge.
For Nonaka and Takeuchi (1999), knowledge is similar to the information, other than her relational. And here are three observations as follows:
In his Theory Organizational Knowledge Creation, Nonaka and Takeuchi (1999) assume the traditional definition of knowledge that you are considered a justified true belief, however, clarified that although traditional epistemology emphasizes the abstract nature, static and non-human knowledge, typically expressed in propositions and formal logic, knowledge is a dynamic human process of justifying personal belief in pursuit of truth.
As a result, both information and knowledge are elements of context-specific and are relational, because they depend on the situation and are dynamically created in social interaction of individuals, on the other hand, when interacting in a social and historical context people share information with which to build a social knowledge that makes up a reality and this, in turn, influences their judgments, their behavior and attitude, (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1999).
From this perspective, it is important to recognize that information is one of the epistemological references for the construction of knowledge; it will add the creativity and thought processes, as well as other information from the context that is not organized or split the experiences and perceptions. For there to be knowledge must combine three factors: information, experience and interaction with the context. It’s not just the ability to relate in a highly structured, data, information and knowledge of a particular object.
The discussion presented earlier, leads to the conclusion that knowledge requires two mental activities : perceiving and conceiving, where mental activity is perceived by which stimuli reach the brain from the outside and makes the process of cognition, and design is mental activity by which concepts and ideas resulting from perceived stimuli, which in turn determine the understanding and comprehending concepts that make learning cognitive process which culminates in what is meant is a fact, a relationship, a word, a method, however what is understood is a number, a system, a plan, ( Arraez 2003).
For Paul and Dominique (2002), the information is structured data and immovable remains idle until it is used, with the knowledge to interpret and process and in the process are transformed into knowledge.
In summary, the information is not knowledge, the information is not going to produce, by itself, new solutions to everyday problems, alternatives to the needs of populations and countries, or the construction of innovative proposals by the organizations, (Camacho , 2003).
Moreover, the support of knowledge is not only information but the human qualities and abilities that use it to transform some or to modify their own abilities. Was identified that knowledge is only the interpretation, analysis and processing of information, because it includes the process of understanding of human learning. De Souza Silva (2002), puts it as follows: Knowledge is a verb, not a noun, is a classic swing state of understanding that a building after interpreting and analyzing different information on the same theme” (p 36).
For this information into knowledge needed start-up, development and maintenance of a range of strategies. First, it is necessary to discriminate relevant information that according to the interest of the person who inquires. Selected information is necessary to analyze a reflexive posture, trying to deepen each of the elements, de- constructing the message, to re- build it from reality. Thus, in the process of de-construction was disassembled, includes, and means those parts, objectives, elements, axioms of the message. In the process of re-construction is the reverse procedure, i.e. from the global perspective of knowledge and the person from their personal, social, historical, cultural and vital (Sancho and Millan, 1995).
Organizational Learning: Definitions and Key Theory
Definition of Organization
Today, all aspects of human existence are affected, directly or indirectly, for any type of organization. It has prevailed for some time a wide variety of statements that try to define it; this could be a cause for which some theorists of the organization have been grouped according to three elements: the goals, the degree of formality of relationships and the kind of integration of members.
To Swieringa and wierdsma (1995), an organization is the result of a combination of rules, insights and principles. The first formulate what should be done and what is allowed and the latter represents what is known and understood, the others represent what is, or you want to be, (p. 14).
Kreitner (1997 ) considers that there are four characteristics that are common to all organizations: The coordination of effort (achieved through policies and rules), a common goal (a collective purpose), the division of labor (people who perform different tasks though related) and a hierarchy of authority (chain of command), has called the grouping of these four factors structure of the organization.
For Martínez (1999 ), the organization is defined as a consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or more persons, who operate in a relatively constant to achieve a goal or set of common goals, and whose existence is guaranteed if it is people can communicate and are willing to work together to achieve a common goal.
In this research, the organization is conceived as a social being, dynamic and complex, intentionally created to achieve certain objectives through human labor and material resources, owner of a structure and set in a context that has specific historical conditions influence its development.
Based on the above approach and considering the scenario faced by organizations in the twenty-first century, following the revolutionary advances in information technology, competition for resources, and the challenges of an increasingly informed society and applicant, Organizational Learning comes as part of the processes that are generated in organizations to meet such demands.
Definitions of Organizational Learning
In this context, organizational learning, as a reference epistemological be deepened and interpreted, is defined by different authors. For Robbins (1998), Organizational Learning is fundamentally a social activity where knowledge and skills are implemented; they are criticized and are integrated as opportunities to optimize learning and effectiveness in the workplace. Contributes an asset of the people who initiate processes through which explore, build and discover new knowledge from daily work in the search for answers and solutions.
For his part, Wick (1993) states that a learning organization improving steadily, rapidly creating and honing the skills required for success. Yeung, Ulrich and others (1999) settle the jurisdiction of organizational learning, the ability to generate ideas, generalizing and identifying learning disabilities.
Gairín (2000) argues that learning can occur in an organization in different ways, according to the strategy, structure, culture, different styles and through formal and informal ways. This position requires, by its very nature, organizational structures more flexible operation of a new style of leadership, decision making and control mechanisms.
The concept of Organizational Learning described above, has two levels. The first level is the individual learning, which aims to banish an attitude of passive approach to things and life, for attaining this condition is necessary to diversify and open up new experiences of knowledge. The second level of learning is the group level, points to the need to create conditions and mechanisms for building learning-oriented teams.
Thus, it is considered that collectively people are more acute and intelligent than they are, individually. The experience reiterates that IQ team developed in collaborative work environments, in small heterogeneous groups, is potentially higher than for individuals.
From this perspective, learning is not only the acquisition of new information and skills but more importantly, a social activity expressed in organizations, through various collaborative bodies that allow collecting and integrating different experiences, knowledge, abilities and skills around a learning community in which each other.
Another view on Organizational Learning, argues that it is a community of people who build knowledge together on the basis of four central axioms: a) It stimulates the sense of shared responsibility, confidence, creativity, flexibility, commitment and sense of belonging; b) define objectives, identify opportunities and problems. c) guidelines and contribute to the integration of activities and visions, helping to accommodate the diversity inherent in any organization, but at the same time valuing and recognizing the experience, authority, capacity and expertise of each and, e) Learning is encouraged Collaborative, i.e. learning the skills of reasoning that allows people to understand, analyze, evaluate, synthesize and apply the information they handle, (Gairín, 2000).
The implementation of these four axioms, the organization promotes the development of tangible activities: new ideas, innovations in programming, new management and supervisory methods and tools to change the way people perform their work and develop an enduring capacity exchange.
Coinciding with the previous approach , says Diaz (2001) that organizational learning is strongly linked to organizational change , in this sense says that any change or modification due to the construction of new knowledge , culture, values , members forming an organization.
In the same vein, Picon (1994) argues that organizational learning is related to: Any changes to some extent the theory of action of the organization performing relatively persistent “(p. 55). Understanding that the theory of action has to do with thought-action relationship and in this sense, sees man as a being who designs his actions, implements and evaluates its consequences when adopting their designs meet their intentions consequences and modify or try to change them when you are adverse outcomes . Only if the theory of action of the organization is changed in any of its components, you can mention that the organization has learned. Finally raises this author that everything happens for Organizational Learning first as a learning process, and then integrated into a gestalt of the group.
For its part Senge (1992), led to a theory of Organizational Learning, by relating the current humanistic management, general systems theory and information theory. He defines learning organizations as a social activity where knowledge and skills are implemented; they are criticized and are integrated as opportunities to optimize learning and effectiveness in the workplace. At the same time raises, that the learning organization people can not stop learning because learning is part of the fabric of everyday life.
In the learning organization, people enhance their ability to create what they want to create and have an ingrained philosophy for anticipating, reacting, and responding to change, complexity and uncertainty. In this way it is interpreted that the proportion to the speed at which organizations learn, it can become a sustainable source of competitive advantage.
It raised before we can say that learning organizations are those that facilitate the learning of all its members and to continually transform to meet the demands of the environment. The key is to understand learning as inseparable from everyday work to create spaces in which to address the problems, clarify differences, creating a sense of belonging, ownership of goals and institutional objectives.
Senge (2000) focuses the study of organizational learning, in terms of its ontological dimension, at the organizational level, transcending the individual and the group. This article highlights his view of learning in organizations in a systemic perspective, considering that the key to an organization to learn lies in the overall understanding of it and the interactions among its parts.
This author defines learning as the vehicle that allows the individual to create their own reality and its future. In this sense, we might interpret the epistemological postulates of the theory of Senge’s Organizational Learning (op cit), is located in the constructivist paradigm. Likewise, introducing the concept of learning organizations as a synonym for learning organizations, as follows:
“… We can build intelligent organizations , organizations where people continually expand their ability to create the results you want, where they grow new and expansive patterns of thinking , where collective aspiration is set free , where people are continually learning to learn whole “( p. 61).
Similarly, describes learning organizations are those that learn and continually expand their capabilities and creative potential. In this context, conceived as the process of learning, action to incorporate new skills that enable to achieve objectives, which were hitherto out of reach, (Senge, 2000).
In this way groups organize and build a common history of interpersonal dynamics, communication mechanisms, ways to solve problems, and mode group commitment to address the problems identified, their vision and joint planning. Channel involves individual actions, group and institutional workplaces flexible, adaptable and successful, improving the quality of life of individuals and the institution.
The process of learning in learning organizations is ongoing, focusing on the problems linked to the context and affecting all members of the organization. The completion of this learning, which passes through the involvement of people, is the attention to five aspects or disciplines that work together and relate to the capacities of members of the organization and the characteristics. These disciplines proposed by Senge (1992), are: personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning, systems thinking:
Table 6
The Five Disciplines of Organizational Learning.
Theoretical and Practical Aspects (Senge, 1999)
1. Systems Thinking
* Conceptual framework which integrates the other disciplines. Referring to the concern about the processes no longer deal with the problems as isolated.
* It achieved by adopting a systemic perspective that brings together the learning of teamwork, personal mastery and mental models rethinking.
2. Personal Domain
* Discipline is the key to growth and individual learning. Helps clarify and deepen personal vision permanently, concentrate their efforts and develop patience and balance.
* It directed to the appropriate conditions to achieve personal and professional development.
* Promotes to develop the connections between the individual and organizational learning.
3. Mental Models
* It rooted assumptions, generalizations, and images that influence the way of understanding the world and act. Therefore shape the actions of individuals.
* You must be open-minded to new thoughts and reflections on the work and its meaning in order to rethink the way we see the world.
4. Building Shared Vision
* Institutional capacity is to create an ideal future, shared.
* Propicia genuine commitment as a basis for analysis and organizational intervention.
5. Team Learning.
* Process of aligning and developing the capacity of a team to achieve the fundamental unit of learning.
* starts with dialogue and develop the capacity of members of a genuine thinking together
Note: Prepared with information taken from Senge (2000).
The interrelationship between these disciplines is essential and should strengthen their performances. According to Senge’s approach, it is necessary to devise an organizational strategy to develop the five disciplines of Organizational Learning. Each of these disciplines can be approached on three levels: 1) Practice: Are the activities in which participants of the discipline focus time and energy, 2) Principles: guiding ideas and concepts to justify practices, 3) Essences the state of being, those who have a proficiency in the discipline.
From this perspective , learning as a social activity in organizations is expressed through various collaborative bodies , which allow to collect and integrate different experiences , knowledge, skills and expertise around a community in which they learn from each other and build together knowledge on the basis of four central axioms (Senge , 1998):
Table 7
Axioms upon which to build a collective
Learning as social action organizations
1. Are encouraged to organize certain principles and values
The sense of shared responsibility, confidence, creativity, flexibility, commitment and sense of belonging.
2. Objectives are defined and identified, opportunities and challenges
A learning organization is characterized by efforts to use knowledge effectively and institutional capacities to learn from others and develop new opportunities.
3. Is directed and contributes to the achievement of diversity and experience.
The integration of activities and views , encouraging attention to diversity throughout the organization itself , but at the same time valuing and recognizing the experience, authority , ability and experience of each person.
4. Cooperative learning is encouraged.
The development of skills for teamwork.
Positive interdependence occurs when a person perceives that is linked with other so that, in coordinating its efforts with those of others, manages to get a better product and thus complete a task more successfully.
Note: Prepared with information taken from Senge (1998)
All these axioms are based , the process of cooperation, i.e. , giving and receiving ideas, provide help and assistance , exchange and provide the necessary resources to constructive criticism.
Another group of theorists of organizational learning, Argyris and Schön is conformed (1978), who base their antecedents in the thinking of Dewey, Lewin and Habermas, raised the so-called Theory of Human Action.
The relationship thought – action from the viewpoint of action theory, which views man as a being who designs his actions, implements and evaluates its consequences, taking their designs when the consequences of their actions correspond to his intentions and modify them when they are adverse. Regarding this aspect, Picon (1994), argues that “this concept involves understanding the behavior as something constituted by the meanings and interactions of actors “(p. 48).
From the above it is interpreted that this theoretical approach on the Theory of Human Action, is a paradigmatic constructivist approach, assuming that social actors construct a theory for their intentional actions and the behavior displayed individually, answered to the construction of mental models which are formed by their beliefs, values, action strategies assumptions or premises. As to the theory of organizational or collective action with collective commitments are expressed in the mission, objectives , policies and strategies set out as thought and intention of its members, ( Picon , op cit).
For its part, Argyris and Schön (1978) define organizational learning as any change affecting the theory of action of the organization with relatively persistent results. They argue further that only if the theory of action of the organization is changed in any of its components, you can mention that the organization has learned. Also considered, coinciding with Senge (2000), Gairín (2000), among others, organizational learning everything goes first as individual learning, and then join the collective complex.
Consequently, Argyris and Schön distinguish two dimensions in the Theory of Action: explicit theory and theory in use. The theory of action explicit, it is the preacher or an actor states and is consistent with their intellectual and convictions. On the theory of action used is one that the actor is implemented, consisting of the implicit assumptions that guide the behavior actually observed.
Also, within this theory of action, the processes of change that arise are considered accomplishments of both individual and group learning, organizational and social. Assuming, within this framework of learning as the process of construction, testing and reconstruction of the theory of action or condition that governs the behavior of the actors.
Another group of contemporary theorists of organizational learning, it is Nonaka and Takeuchi ( 1999), who inspired by chaos theory , understand that situations of fluctuation or imbalance favoring the generation of new information and, from the same , give a new order of knowledge. On this basis, supporting their theory of organizational knowledge creation and define organizational learning as an organizational process through which an individual’s knowledge can be shared , evaluated and integrated with those of others in the organization , ( p.59 ) .
In relation to other theoretical and philosophical underpinning of Organizational Learning theory, Nonaka and Takeuchi argue that the Asian intellectual tradition, specifically in Japan, there is an important philosophical current has been widely disseminated, nor has described any systematic way.
Thus they argue, it is very difficult to find a single trace of Cartesian rationalism in Japanese thinking. But if there is a Japanese ideal of knowledge, which integrates the teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism, and the major Western philosophical. Also, have three distinctive features of Japanese intellectual tradition: human unity – nature, the unit mind – body, and the unity of self and others.
a) The unit.-. Human nature is referred to the taste of human beings by nature, the notion of the beauty of change and transition. In this tradition, is given the name of emotional naturalism.
b) Unit mind – body it puts emphasis on the whole human personality. For the Japanese, knowledge means wisdom gained from the perspective of personality as a whole.
c) Unit self and others: is an organic world view which gives more importance to the subjective and intuitive intelligence, perspective is tactile and interpersonal Japan
For Nonaka and Takeuchi (1999), the vision of organizational learning is closely linked to knowledge management in organizations. Accordingly, the Organizational Learning is related to the organizational process through which the knowledge of an individual may be shared, evaluated and integrated with the others in the organization “(p. 63).
Organizational Learning is identified with the process to convert individual knowledge, the knowledge shared by all members of the organization. Similarly to these authors, knowledge is “a dynamic process of justifying personal belief in pursuit of truth. Knowledge is Action (p 78).
Similarly, the Learning Organization is conceived by these authors as “an organization that is continually evolving, which transforms the flow of information in the stock of knowledge and at the same time, it spreads to other areas of the organization and encourage systematic self-organization of information“(p. 72).
With regard to knowledge creation process in organizations, which the authors refer to is what supports his theory of Organizational Learning, distinguishes two fundamental pillars associated with the creation of organizational knowledge, which are, tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge:
The first is referred to something not so evident and difficult to express, is very personal and not easy to raise through the formal language, so it is difficult to transmit and share it with others. It is rooted in the depths of the actions and individual experience, as well as ideas, values and emotions of each person.
On the other hand, tacit knowledge includes cognitive and technical elements. The cognitive elements center on mental models, and the technical element of tacit knowledge contained in Know -how (the ability to know how to perform a task), specific trades and skills. For the second, explicit knowledge is that which can be transmitted using the formal and systematic language. Knowledge creation occurs in the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit.
It is during the time it takes the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and back to tacit, if you create organizational knowledge. From the above, can be interpreted as organizational knowledge creation should be understood as a process that organizationally broad knowledge created by individuals and solidifies as part of the knowledge network of the organization. After creating the new knowledge is disseminated throughout the organization to produce organizational learning.
According to this theory, there are four forms of knowledge conversion: Socialization, Exteorización, Combination and Inteorización.
Table 8
Forms of Organizational Knowledge Conversion.
Definition
1. Socialization
Is the conversion of tacit knowledge to tacit, through exchange of experiences among individuals.
2. Externalization
The process by which tacit knowledge becomes explicit, taking the form of metaphor , analogy, explicit concepts or models. Experience is the primary route of transmission of tacit knowledge.
3. Combination
4. Inteorización
Process that allows the conversion of tacit knowledge explicit. This occurs when explicit knowledge within the organization is assimilated by the individuals of the same.
Raised to the foregoing can be interpreted that the creation of organizational knowledge is a continuous interaction of tacit and explicit knowledge. The following is a summary table where the explicit knowledge conversion process:
Table 9
Knowledge creation process
Source: Nonaka I. and H. Takeuchi ( p. 69)
These contents, or forms of conversion, act together in the spiral of knowledge creation and shaping the epistemological dimension of the theory of organizational knowledge creation of Nonaka and Takeuchi. Tacit knowledge of individuals is the basis of organizational knowledge creation. The organization must mobilize the tacit knowledge created and accumulated at the individual level. Tacit knowledge is amplified organizationally mobilized through the four forms of knowledge conversion and crystallized at the highest ontological level.
The spiral of knowledge is channeled by organizational intention, which is defined as the aspiration of an organization to achieve its goals. The product created through collective and cooperative process, will then be reviewed to verify that is consistent with the concept of average and the overall concept. In this scenario, the role of the organization is to provide the proper context for facilitating group activities, the creation and accumulation of knowledge at the individual level.
For its part Swieringa and Wierdsma (1995), Organizational Learning relate the term with the change of organizational behavior. The purpose of this change is to achieve a form of individual behavior, which better aligns the goals of the learner, in other words, a more effective conduct these authors call competition which impacts learning across the organization.
The goal of learning in this theory is to improve the quality of actions. The assessment of the efficiency of the learning process is to estimate the extent to which competition from someone has increased. This applies both to individual learning and organizational learning, in which case one can speak of the degree of competence demonstrated through organizational behavior.
In this vein, the authors mentioned above, defined learning organizations as those that are not only able to learn, but learning to learn. In other, words can not only be competent, but also keep it off. In this way, learning organizations have mastered the one hand, the art of adapting quickly and, on the other, to preserve their own direction and identity.
Table 10
Principles of Learning
Support Systems
Information to reflect on the system
Information to act within the system
Dealing with the complex.
Note : Prepared with information taken from Swieringa and Wierdsma (1995) p. 79
Moreover, Swieringa and Wierdsma (op cit) are consistent with other theorists (Senge (1999), Nonaka and Takeuchi (1999), Davis and Newstrom (1993), among others), in relation to which an organization can only learn because their members do, but there is a learning process there can be no Organizational Learning. At the same time, a learning process takes place in interaction with and between several people. They consider that an organization learns not only when someone does a better job but when, as a result of this, other members act differently, i.e. a change in the behavior of an individual has an effect on others.
In relation to collective learning can be stimulated through three strategies or three types of Organizational Learning about the rules (explicit or implicit instructions that influence behavior), the insights (representing what is known and understood) and principles (which are, or want to be) of the organization: Learning in a cycle, double-loop learning and learning in a triple cycle (Swieringa and Wierdsma, 1995).
You can talk about learning in a cycle, if the collective learning results in changes in existing rules. This kind of learning can be described as improvement. It aims to improve rules, and seek the solutions according to principles and the insights existing.
In the double-loop learning not only requires changes in the rules, but also in underlying insights. This phase represents the learning at the level of insights on what is known and understood, the consequences are more far-reaching and essential questions about why the rules , what they prescribe what they allow questions on the level of knowledge and collective understanding ( Swieringa and Wierdsma , 1995).
At the same time, the double-loop learning will compete conflicts, disputes and contradictions not only between individuals but also between departments, sections and other groups. These are all signs that we need a double-loop learning. The most important cause of the failure of double-loop learning, in terms of problem solving, is to refuse to dialogue or debate about the mutual fund problems.
To apply double-loop learning requires a collective self. It is necessary for collective insights and no less insight about the connection between individual and collective behavior, and between the rules and insights. In this double-loop learning is called renewal, “as it relates to the renewal of insights in line with existing principles“(p. 45).
As for learning in a triple cycle, occurs when bear discussion on the essential principles underlying the organization. When questions arise, about the position the organization or a part of it wants to occupy in the outside world, seeks to fulfill the role and identity. The questions that characterize the learning cycle triple question why, you are at the level of the collective will and be
An example related to this type of learning in a triple cycle would be: Teachers at a school develop a plan for change, within five years, a discipline -based approach to one based on conflict resolution. This learning cycle can be described as triple development, is the development of new principles, with which an organization may carry out an underlying phase (p. 47).
]]>Thus they have thousands of public employees from all sectors: health, education, regional governments, municipalities, each year buy services from different educational institutions, attend seminars, courses, conferences. So, distance and perform of their duties as required by the law.
Many of them seek to study and learn, raise their intellectual capacity, grow professionally and become competent person.
Thousands of public employees have started as mere adjuncts, on the road studied a superior race, they passed the Technical Group, the Professional, became Chief, Assistant Managers, Directors, over the years.
Today officers are almost always in the state. The same applies in the private sector, where they started as a sweeper, studied accounting, and then began working as assistant accountants, others who started as assistants studied logistics warehouse and ended up as grocers, many workers in factories that were studied Mechanical Lathes and then went to work as technicians in fabrication of parts in industrial plants, workshops lathe, etc.
This is the case of thousands courageous Peruvians who triumphed in his own country and the pride of their families, companies. People who are businessmen today, respected successful professionals.
And everyone is the architect of his own destiny, which studies triumphs, without struggle there is no conquests. The one who strives and take the road of self-sacrifice, savings, dedication, honesty, sacrifice all his undertakings is crowned with victory, success, but not so, those who seek the easy, cheating, cheating their bosses and employers, will explain why.
When you’re so easy, you say to yourself, “why would I follow a path so long, if I can get by this one have everything faster.”
So think drug traffickers, criminals, who are dedicated to living the vice of the people, stealing, cheating. It is easier for them to get comfortable, stylish cars selling drugs to children, adolescents, prostituted girls, girls, rather than working.
When you get used to deceive your boss, company, presented diplomas bought in the street, you’re fooling yourself and you get used to “fraud.”
It is very suspicious that a person who works 6, 8, 12 years in the State as a teacher, he has 120 Diplomas in his curriculum vitae and certificates of educational institutions when the State submits to an assessment, get deprecated.
One wonders how this can be, if this person has presented 10 diplomas each year at the offices of the personnel department in the last twelve years. They have been in constant training, studying, but do not approve the assessments.
The explanation is very simple. “These people buy numerous fake college diplomas and certificates. Payment to sell it, but do not study anything.
There is the reason why they have so many public servants throughout the public administration that despite its numerous diplomas, leaving deprecated in assessments must be held at various instances.
]]>That is why a great tool to meet the demands of curricular growth in the Internet and under the terms of postgraduate ( masters, doctoral and graduate students ) online through virtual classroom. Besides by providing the fabulous privilege to enter the master’s abroad, as well as doctoral programs and graduates who can interact with other participants.
This tool is called Elluminate, it is a virtual classroom tool with have main function to support distance learning, as this allows teachers and students interact in real time through audio, video, instant messaging and an interactive whiteboard. Added to this the participants can share applications of different types of formats in office, pdf, image, audio and video, while others can guide walks users through the Web.
It is important to say that one of its main advantages relates to its ease of use, it is ideal for meetings, training, coaching, meetings and even conferences, as it is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
In this space, the similarity to the conventional classroom in which the teacher teaches his chair by a board, while receiving feedback on teaching and learning that are dictating their students, participants alternately with the difference through the various tools of new technology and are all involved greatly enrich the knowledge through the information that is available on the network.
Through virtual classrooms, like the one just to meet, share knowledge makes the postgraduate study is easy, accessible and higher quality students without neglecting their daily tasks.
]]>In reaching this conclusion, Hume proceeds to establish the origin of perceptions in the human mind. Hume is that our perceptions are caused by two different sources, namely, our impressions and ideas. Thus the perceptions that enter with greater force and violence called impressions, and we understand under this name all our sensations, passions and emotions as they make their first appearance in the soul. While the ideas are the faint images of these [ impressions ] in thinking and reasoning. Hume shows that although this is a general rule, can not be set as a criterion, since there are rare cases in which the ideas and impressions are no different, as in the case of sleeping, the fool or the fever.
This distinction between impressions and ideas is the distinction between simple and complex ideas, and a feeling or simple impression and idea are those that do not support distinction or separation. While the complex is on the other hand those that can be broken down into its parts. Although Hume say that a color, taste and odor qualities are all united in an apple, is easy to see that they are not same, but are at least distinguishable from each
The next point to consider is whether Hume contain complex ideas is an impression that they own, in this way, Hume will tell us that there is so exact correspondence between impressions and ideas “When I close my eyes and think of my room ideas I am are accurate representations of impressions that I felt, and there is no circumstance in the ones that is not in the others”. The ideas and impressions always seem to correspond to each other. More and yet, in spite of that seems to be a relationship between simple ideas and impressions, not the case between the complex ideas and impressions, there is no impression that corresponds to a complex idea without commission [ to complex ideas ] depends on the first [ of simple ideas and impressions ], in the words of Hume our ideas are images of our impressions, we can form secondary ideas are images of the primaries, as seen by reasoning we do about them. The ideas produce images of themselves in new ideas, but as it is assumed that ideas are derived from first impressions, it remains true that all our simple ideas immediately from their respective views.
Memory and imagination, Hume tells us, that the crucial role of memory is to preserve the simple ideas, but their order and position. While the imagination is free and can change both the order as elements that make up the imagined object or action.
This relationship between Hume memory and imagination proceed to study the association of ideas. The association of ideas is that function through which we pass from one idea to another without notice any change in the words of Hume, the qualities of this partnership and which is thus carried the spirit of an idea another are three, namely : resemblance, contiguity in time and space and cause and effect. Hume shows how many relationships of objects are given by these ideas, such as, blood relations, which are given by the idea of causes and effect. The farther we are the cause of something unless we close it.
To criticize the idea of personal identity, Hume tells us, that I do not give it any impression that there is no simple idea which required the self, thus raised the issue, the question is that I would emerge from the partnership these ideas and as said draw conclusions or pass from one idea to another by the ideas of similarity, contiguity and cause and effect.
Hume then establishes what is meant by identity and diversity as: We have a different idea of an object that remains invariable and uninterrupted through the alleged changes in time, and this idea we call identity. We also have a different idea of several different objects existing in succession, and linked together by an intimate relationship, and this for an accurate account provides a notion of diversity as perfect as if there were any kind of relationship between objects.
Now, what will Hume to show that the identity of objects does not exist, is it to show from experience that objects are variable and interrupted?
The clear of constant flow is ever-changing perceptions and not static. So Hume when he begins to criticize the idea of personal identity, what it does is to note how our ideas of “I” come from the ideas of similarity, contiguity and cause and effect. So when considering the identity of plants and animals, Hume shows how none of the material elements are the same on them, watching a river tend to think that this is the same because of their consistency and contiguity of their changes. For the purpose of an object we can think about their identity, and an object that was totally destroyed by an accident and is rebuilt with the same purpose as the impression that it was the same object in order persists, or if even element adds or removes small parties tend to think that it is another object, but the same one, except that if you experience major changes. Thus considered the matter, we can conclude is that personal identity is a fiction and that the experience there is nothing to be invariable constant to change and joined some impression of where it resulted from the self.
]]>We relive days like those of October 2008, but the nervousness now affects those who have a certain heritage. We will not see, as occurred in fall 2008, customers of banks and removing and putting money from their accounts not to exceed the € 100,000 that covers the Guarantee Fund. But among those with true heritage nervousness begins to be similar.
If you fear nothing invades discarded, possibly because you have to justify certain decisions that will amaze yourself. And that is what is happening.
Because of this, much more widespread in Greece, the German Treasury is taking a strong demand for titles that explains that the profitability of its ten-year bond has fallen to 2.86 (do well for Merkel and for all their fellow citizens who have managed the time to help the country Hellene) . Meanwhile the ten-year bond Spanish profitability has risen to 4.17 percent (Too bad for all the Spanish!). The difference in profitability of Spanish and German bond is explained by the dual effect of increased product demand Germany and a decline in the Spanish financial asset purchases.
By: Rafael Rubio
]]>“W?” Double -dip? This week we had any more information than worrying. The American real estate sector has given us two terrors: one on Tuesday and another Wednesday. Without public support, home sales are not sustained. The New properties have marked a historic low. The U.S. Federal Reserve, in its communiqué issued after its regular meeting on monetary policy, proved to be more pessimistic than it had been customary in recent months. Because the financial terms have become an enemy of economic growth. References added a string of worrying in terms of employment, growth and bank credit.
On this side of the Atlantic, while the debt crisis continues to lash some another, especially in the form of closure of the interbank market, the new panel forecasts for Spain Funcas predict a relapse into recession in the second half of the year.
And while the economy falters, European states are struggling in the design of draconian budget cut plans. The most controversy was raised was the German and the impositions of Angela Merkel community partners. So much so that has caused an intense debate between George Soros and nothing less than the German economy minister, Wolfgang Schäuble. The famous investor, yesterday in Germany, in interviews, at a conference and later in an article published in the Financial Times, said: “Policies that are being imposed in the euro area directly contradict the lessons of the Great Depression of the thirties and carry the risk of condemning Europe for a prolonged period of stagnation, or worse.”
Soros agreed, so, with the open letter sent by President Barack Obama to their partners in the G-20. It is true that Obama has expressed much more diplomatic and did not call names to those who, veiled, were subject to criticism. The U.S. president stressed the great efforts made by governments to leave the Great Recession, and that would be unacceptable to squander all that capital. “Our priority in Toronto must be the safeguarding of the strength of the recovery. We work in an exceptional way to restore growth; we can not let it wane. This means we must reaffirm our unity to continue the policies that support economic growth enough,” Obama wrote in his letter.
And another very important thing, in clear reference to both China and Germany: “A strong and sustained recovery must be built on a balanced global demand. In Pittsburgh (an earlier meeting of the G-20), we agreed that countries with current account balances surpluses should do their utmost to strengthen domestic demand. “It is critical that the pace of fiscal consolidation in each economy is adequate for the needs of the global economy,” added the president. He does not say, but I think it is taking the bronze Hu Jintao and Angela Merkel. The latest case has made him a more flexible yuan. But the first is to his guns.
Not that Obama is an unconscious and is not concerned about his country’s massive debt. Sure it is. But his obsession is not a German. “My administration will cut the budget deficit by half by 2013, which in 2015 will be reduced to 3 %, “says the president. Attention! In 2015! In Europe, it was decided that this objective is met in 2013. Why the European masochism? ” , I would say Paul Krugman , also of pro -spending club , of which just left the UK , which has again been a lover of “blood , sweat and tears.” Germany has a constitutional mandate anti – deficit. Why now is not skip it as early in this decade? Krugman sees a further danger on the horizon, finally, Germany’s Axel Weber will become the next president of the European Central Bank is more orthodox than the current one, Jean -Claude Trichet. We know that the monetary authority’s mandate is to monitor inflation. And I do not want to move there. Well, if they ask for more flexible labor market, what I ask is flexibility in the role of the European Central Bank and the Stabilization and Growth Pact. Because their rigidities condemn us to the abyss.
But come on, Schäuble does not decay in his advocacy of fiscal austerity. And, unlike the delicacy with which Obama expressed, the German minister with all the ammunition fired, “While American politicians prefer to look at the short term, we expand the focus and therefore we are more concerned about the implications excessive deficits and the dangers of high inflation.” “Our aversion to deficit and the fear of inflation, which have their roots in German history, may seem strange to our American friends, whose economic culture is, in part, truffled deflationary episodes.”
The meeting of G-20 promises to debate. Also in relation to the financing system. Obama calls for transparency in the European financial system to reduce tensions in the credit market. To see whether Merkel grants and bare their banks.
It is a game of table tennis. I prefer to win the Obama , Soros and Krugman. For once, I oppose the efforts being made by Old Europe because I think the numbers will take away the reason and also with them, give up its essence. Not only growth is in danger. The flag of Old Europe, the welfare state, is also in question.
By: Cristina Vallejo
]]>BP shares have fallen to their lowest point in 14 years and its market capitalization suffered a destruction of 100,000 million dollars (over 81,000 million euros) from the disaster that began on 20 April. In light of these data, Cameron on Friday showed concern about the “destruction” of the company.
Business and shareholder groups have been calling for Britain’s new Prime Minister comes to defending the company because of the perception that Obama has been too critical of its management of the landfill.
According to the sources cited, Cameron raised the issue of BP to Obama when the two leaders held their first face to face since he became prime minister last month. “Both agreed that there is nothing to gain if BP is damaged, “said the official.” And both agreed that BP should meet their obligations to stop the loss, clean up the damage and respond to the legitimate compensation costs.”
The company said it paid U.S. $ 2,350 million (1,900 million euros) so far in cleanup costs and compensation for the ecological disaster caused by the largest spill in U.S. history. That does not include the fund by the oil spill of 20,000 million (16,170 million euros) has agreed to establish, or the billions of dollars that must pay fines.
BP, which was an entirely British company, now has global operations and a greater presence in the U.S.. About 40 percent of its shareholder base from the United Kingdom, and a similar proportion in the U.S..
]]>The issue of when and how to remove the economic incentives were launched to overcome the crisis has become the main source of friction within the G20, which groups the major developed and developing countries and has emerged the guardian of the global economy.
On one side of the debate are countries like the U.S., insisting as he made clear today the country’s Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner that the G20 should focus primarily on growth, a position shared by emerging powers such as Brazil.
On the other side of the spectrum is the European Union, with Germany at the head, which maintain that cutting public spending is the priority.
This was made clear today, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, who said at the end of the G8 meeting, which ended hours before the start of G20, the global economy growth will only “durable and sustainable if countries strengthen their financial” and implementing structural reforms at the same time.”
Brazilian Finance Minister Guido Mantega, who represents his government in the summit at having to leave President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva by floods in the country, warned that fiscal consolidation is important.
He warned, however, that the incipient and uneven global economic recovery may be “threatened” by “hurry the withdrawal of stimuli.”
Despite this push and pull on the theme that emerges as a key to the economies footing again today in Toronto were observed forays between opposing positions.
Merkel herself said , in that sense , there is “consensus” on the need to reduce the expense and Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, who has proposed to cut the deficit in half by 2013, that consensus called “strong”.
Beyond was even president of the European Commission Jose Manuel Durao Barroso, who spoke during a press conference to the existence of a preliminary agreement to reducing the deficit in half by 2013 as suggested by Harper.
Mantega noted, however, that an agreement in this regard is far from closed and called unrealistic even such a proposal.
“It is very draconian a little difficult, a bit exaggerated, “he said at a news conference today Mantega, recalling that “there are countries with deficits above 10 percent” and will not be possible to achieve the objective set.
While waiting for the leaders of the G20 limens protrusions on that front today and tomorrow, another issue is emerging as controversial is the proposal to impose a global tax on the banking or financial transactions that fund .
United States, United Kingdom, Germany and France lead this crusade but emerging countries like Brazil have made it clear that they disagree.
“We’re not going to agree with that, “said Mantega today, others argue that this is a measure to be applied individually by countries that so wish.
It is expected, moreover, that the G20 tomorrow a new impetus to the proposal to strengthen banks capital and enhance transparency in the sector, according Mantega measures would be adopted at the group’s next meeting in November in South Korea.
It is expected that the final communiqué to be issued tomorrow to allude also to seek alternatives to the Doha Round and subsidies for fossil fuels.
The G20 meeting started today with a state dinner and continues tomorrow, Sunday, with the plenary meeting of the group.
]]>So it finds the chapter on Housing and Mortgage Loans included by the Statistical Institute of Navarra ( IEN ) in the Survey of Consumer Economic Situation , for which asked a sample of 640 older than 18 years Navarre .
The survey, as reported today by the INE, shows that 72.3% of Navarre over 18 have a home and of these, 96.1 % have owned (96.9 % in 2009), 0.4 % for rent and 1.3% assigned, while the remaining 2.2% holding encompasses other situations.
13.7% of available buyers account before a housing (18.6 % in 2009) and another 13.7% had no home ownership (9.5 % in 2009).
The number of mortgage loans decreased from last year as a quarter of buyers have a loan current , which in almost all cases, mortgage to finance house purchases, while in 2009 it had in force third of the buyers.
On the other hand, the percentage of the value housing loans representing has declined, as more loans account for less than 50 % the value of housing and significantly decrease the loans which represent over 50% of the acquired property (74.8 % versus 85.1 % in 2009).
In the latter year the maturity of loans has been changed, highlighting those with growth within 16 to 20 years (12.6 points in 2009), and a decrease of which are depreciated between 10 and 15 years (nine points less than in 2009).
The interest rate that applies to home loans is primarily the variable (86.5 % ), followed by fixed rate (12.6 %) and mixed type (0.9 %), compared to 83.7 %, 15.6 % and 0.7 % in 2009, respectively.
As for the reference applied in the updating of the loans, the Euribor are used in 91.8 % of loans, similar percentage as in 2009.
Given the time of purchase, 3.1 % acquired less than three years, 21.6 % in the range of 3-10 years and 75.3% of respondents over 10 years.
Moreover, in regard to the type of housing, 86.6 % of homes purchased are free (compared to 83.1 % in 2009).
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